Issues in Caring for Pediatric Patients with Head Trauma: New Guidelines Stimulating New Investigation 1. Adelson PD, Bratton SL, Carney NA, Chesnut RM, du Coudray HEM, et al: Guidelines for the acute medical management of severe traumatic brain injury in infants, children and adolescents. Pediatr Crit Care Med Suppl 4:S1-S75, 2003.
2. James HE: Methodology for the control of intracranial pressure with hypertonic mannitol. Acta Neurochir 51:161-172, 1980.
3. Carney N, Chesnut R, Kochanek PM: (Foreword) Guidelines for the acute medical management of severe traumatic brain injury in infants, children and adolescents. Pediatr Crit Care Med Suppl 4:S1, 2003.
4. Tong KA, Ashwal S, Holshouser BA, Nickerson JP, Wall CJ, et al: Diffuse axonal injury in children: clinical correlation with hemorrhagic lesions. Ann Neurol 56:36-50, 2004.
5. Vavilala MS, Bowen A Lam AM, Uffman JC, Powell J, et al: Blood pressure and outcome after severe pediatric traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 55:1039-1044, 2003.
6. Vavilala MS, Lee LA, Boddu K, Visco E, Newell DW, et al: Cerebral autoregulation in pediatric traumatic brain injury. Pediatr Crit Care Med 5:257-263, 2004.
7. Cochran A, Scaife ER, Hansen KW, Downey EC: Hyperglycemia and outcomes from pediatric traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 55:1035-1038, 2003.
8. Wijdicks EFM: The Clinical Practice of Critical Care Neurology, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, New York, 2003.
9. Lai Y, Kochanek PM, Adelson PD, Janesko K, Ruppel RA, Clark RS: Induction of the stress response after inflicted and non-inflicted traumatic brain injury in infants and children. J Neurotrauma 21:229-237, 2004.
10. Keenan HT, Runyan DK, Marshall SW, Nocera MA, Merten DF, Sinal SH: A population-based study of inflicted traumatic brain injury in young children. JAMA 290:621-626, 2003.
11. Biswas AK, Bruce DA, Sklar FH, Bokovoy JL, Sommerauer JF: Treatment of acute traumatic brain injury in children with moderate hypothermia improves intracranial hypertension. Crit Care Med 30:2742-2751, 2002.
12. Figaji AA, Fieggen AG, Peter JC: Early decompressive craniotomy in children with severe traumatic brain injury. Childs Nerv Syst 19:666-673, 2003.
13. Hejazi N, Witzmann A, Fae P: Unilateral decompressive craniectomy for children with severe brain injury. Report of seven cases and review of the relevant literature. Eur J Pediatr 161:99-104, 2002.
14. Messing-Junger AM, Marzog J, Wobker G, Sabel M, Bock WJ: Decompressive craniectomy in severe brain injury. Zentralbl Neurochir 64:171-177, 2003.
15. Ruf B, Heckmann M, Schroth I, Hügens-Penzel M, Reiss I, et al: Early decompressive craniectomy and duraplasty for refractory intracranial hypertension in children: results of a pilot study. Critical Care 7:R133-R138, 2003 (DOI 10.1186/cc2361 ) http://ccforum.com/content/7/6/R133
16. Taylor A, Butt W, Rosenfeld J, Shann F, Ditchfield M, et al: A randomized trial of very early decompressive craniectomy in children with traumatic brain injury and sustained intracranial hypertension. Childs Nerv Syst 17:154-162, 2001.
17. Shore P, Thomas NJ, Clark RSB, Adelson PD, Wisniewski SR, et al: Continuous vs. intermittent cerebrospinal fluid drainage after severe traumatic brain injury in children: effect on biochemical markers. J Neurotrauma 21:1113-1122, 2004.
The Final Diagnosis: Brain Death
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Table 1 Clinical Criteria for Brain Death |
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Known cause of coma sufficient to account for the irreversible loss of all brain function |
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All movement is only attributable to spinal cord function |
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Absent pharyngeal reflexes |
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Absent corneal and papillary light reflexes |
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No oculocephalic (doll’s eyes) or oculovestibular (cold calorics) |
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No respiratory efforts with apnea test |
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Table 2 Confirmatory Tests |
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- Transcranial Doppler Ultrasonography
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1. The United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) -- A National Conference on Donation After Cardiac Death http://www.unos.org
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3. Younger, Stuart J. The Definition of Death Contemporary Controversies. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999, pp 34-65.
Emerging Topics in Neuroscience of Traumatic Brain Injury: Brain Metabolism
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12. Imberti R, Bellinzona G, Langer M. Cerebral tissue PO2 and SjvO2 changes during moderate hyperventilation in patients with severe traumatic brain injury.
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15. Magnoni S, Ghisoni L, Locatelli M, Caimi M, Colombo A, Valeriani V, Stocchetti N. Lack of improvement in cerebral metabolism after hyperoxia in severe head injury: a microdialysis study. J Neurosurg. 2003 May;98(5):952-8.
16. Meixensberger J, Jaeger M, Vath A, Dings J, Kunze E, Roosen K. Brain tissue oxygen guided treatment supplementing ICP/CPP therapy after traumatic brain injury.
J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003 Jun;74(6):760-4.
17. Menon DK, Coles JP, Gupta AK, Fryer TD, Smielewski P, Chatfield DA, Aigbirhio F, Skepper JN, Minhas PS, Hutchinson PJ, Carpenter TA, Clark JC, Pickard JD. Diffusion limited oxygen delivery following head injury. Crit Care Med. 2004 Jun;32(6):1384-90.
18. Menzel M, Doppenberg EM, Zauner A, Soukup J, Reinert MM, Bullock R. Increased inspired oxygen concentration as a factor in improved brain tissue oxygenation and tissue lactate levels after severe human head injury. Neurosurg. 1999 Jul;91(1):1-10.
19. Okonkwo DO, Povlishock JT.An intrathecal bolus of cyclosporin A before injury preserves mitochondrial integrity and attenuates axonal disruption in traumatic brain injury. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1999 Apr;19(4):443-51.
20. Prins ML, Lee SM, Fujima LS, Hovda DA. Increased cerebral uptake and oxidation of exogenous betaHB improves ATP following traumatic brain injury in adult rats.
J Neurochem. 2004 Aug;90(3):666-72.
21. Reinert M, Barth A, Rothen HU, Schaller B, Takala J, Seiler RW. Effects of cerebral perfusion pressure and increased fraction of inspired oxygen on brain tissue oxygen, lactate and glucose in patients with severe head injury. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2003 May;145(5):341-9
22. Riess P, Bareyre FM, Saatman KE, Cheney JA, Lifshitz J, Raghupathi R, Grady MS, Neugebauer E, McIntosh TK. Effects of chronic, post-injury Cyclosporin A administration on motor and sensorimotor function following severe, experimental traumatic brain injury. Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2001;18(1):1-8.
23. Rockswold SB, Rockswold GL, Vargo JM, Erickson CA, Sutton RL, Bergman TA, Biros MH. Effects of hyperbaric oxygenation therapy on cerebral metabolism and intracranial pressure in severely brain injured patients. J Neurosurg. 2001 Mar;94(3):403-11.
24. Valadka AB, Goodman JC, Gopinath SP, Uzura M, Robertson CS. Comparison of brain tissue oxygen tension to microdialysis-based measures of cerebral ischemia in fatally head-injured humans. J Neurotrauma. 1998 Jul;15(7):509-19
25. Vespa, P, McArthur, D, Glenn, T, O’Phelan, K, Etchepare, M, Kelly, D, Bergsneider, M, Martin, NA, Hovda, DA. J Neurotrauma. (2003) Persistently reduced levels of extracellular glucose early after traumatic brain injury correlate with poor outcome at six months: A microdialysis study. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 23:865---877.
26. Vespa, P, McArthur, D, Alger, J, O’Phelan, K, Glenn, T, Bergsneider, B, Martin, NA, Hovda, DA. Regional Heterogeneity of Brain Metabolism using Cerebral Microdialysis: Concordance with Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Positron Emission Tomography. Brain Pathology 2004 14:210-214.
27. Vigue B, Ract C, Benayed M, Zlotine N, Leblanc PE, Samii K, Bissonnette B. (1999) Early SjvO2 monitoring in patients with severe brain trauma. Intensive Care Med. 25(5):445---451.
28. Wu HM, Huang SC, Hattori N, Glenn TC, Vespa PM, Yu CL, Hovda DA, Phelps ME, Bergsneider M. Selective metabolic reduction in gray matter acutely following human traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2004 Feb;21(2):149-61.
29. Jodicke A., Hubner F, Boker DK. Monitoring of brain tissue oxygenation during aneurysm surgery: prediction of procedure-related ischemic events. J Neurosurgery. 2004 Mar;98(3):515-23.
Respiratory Care of the Neurologic Patient
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8. Bronchard R, Albaladejo P, Brezac G, et al. Early onset pneumonia. Risk factors and consequences in head trauma patients. Anesthesiology 2004;100:234-239.
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10. Valadka AB, Gopinath SP, Contant CF, Uzura M, Robertson CS. Relationship of brain tissue PO2 to outcome after severe head injury. Crit Care Med. 1998;26:1576-81.
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Making a Change
- 1. Institute of Medicine. (2003). “Health Professional Education: A Bridge to Quality”. The National Academies Press: Washington, D.C.
Outcomes of ICU Patients After Neurological Injury
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